Part of speech
Almost all languages have the lexical categories noun and verb, but beyond these there are significant variations in different languages.[1] For example, Japanese has as many as three classes of adjectives where English has one; Chinese, Korean and Japanese have nominal classifiers whereas European languages do not; many languages do not have a distinction between adjectives and adverbs, adjectives and verbs (see stative verbs) or adjectives and nouns[citation needed], etc. This variation in the number of categories and their identifying properties entails that analysis be done for each individual language. Nevertheless the labels for each category are assigned on the basis of universal criteria.[1]
English
English words have
been traditionally classified into eight lexical categories, or parts of speech
(and are still done so in most dictionaries):
Noun
any abstract or concrete entity; a
person (police officer, Michael), place (coastline, London), thing (necktie, television),
idea (happiness), or quality (bravery)
Pronoun
any substitute for a noun or noun
phrase (them)
Adjective
any qualifier of a noun or pronoun (big)
Verb
any action (walk), occurrence (happen),
or state of being (be)
Adverb
any qualifier of an adjective, verb,
clause, sentence, or other adverb (very)
Preposition
any establisher of relation and
syntactic context (in)
Conjunction
any syntactic connector (and)
Interjection
any emotional greeting (or
"exclamation") (ow)
Linguists recognize that
the above list of eight word classes is drastically simplified and artificial.[2] For example,
"adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with
many different functions. Some have even argued that the most basic of category
distinctions, that of nouns and verbs, is unfounded,[3] or not
applicable to certain languages.[4][5] Although these
eight are the traditional eight English parts of speech, modern linguists have
been able to classify English words into even more specific categories and
subcategories based on function.
The four main parts of speech in English, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives
and adverbs, are labelled "form classes" as well. This is because
prototypical members of each class share the ability to change their form by
accepting derivational or inflectional morphemes. The term "form" is
used because it refers literally to the similarities in shape of the word in
its pronunciation and spelling for each part of speech.[6]
Neither written nor spoken English generally marks words as belonging to one part of speech or another, as they tend to be
understood in the context of the sentence. Words like neigh, break, outlaw, laser,
microwave, and telephone might all be either verb forms or nouns. Although -ly
is a frequent adverb marker, not all adverbs end in -ly (-wise is another
common adverb marker) and not all words ending in -ly are adverbs. For
instance, tomorrow, fast, very can all be adverbs, while early, friendly, ugly
are all adjectives (though early can also function as an adverb). Verbs can
also be used as adjectives (e.g. "The astonished child watched the
spectacle unfold" instead of the verb usage "The unfolding spectacle astonished
the child"). In such cases, the verb is in its participle form.
In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions
can be used as verbs or nouns, as in, "We must look to the hows and not
just the whys."
Functional classification
The study of linguistics has expanded
the understanding of lexical categories in various languages and allowed for better
classifying words by function. Common lexical categories in English by function
may include:
- Closed word classes:
- auxiliary verbs
- clitics
- coverbs
- conjunctions
- determiners (articles, quantifiers, demonstrative adjectives, and possessive adjectives)
- particles
- measure words
- adpositions (prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions)
- preverbs
- pronouns
- contractions
- cardinal numbers
See also
- Grammatical category
- Part-of-speech tagging
- Quirky subject
- Sliding window based part-of-speech tagging
- Syntactic category
References
1. Kroeger, Paul
(2005). Analyzing Grammar: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-521-01653-7.
2. Zwicky, Arnold
(30 March 2006). "What part of speech is
"the"". Language Log. Retrieved 26
December 2009. "...the school tradition about parts of speech is so
desperately impoverished"
3. Hopper, P;
Thompson, S (1985). "The Iconicity of the Universal Categories 'Noun' and
'Verbs'". In John Haiman. Typological Studies in Language: Iconicity and
Syntax 6. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
pp. 151–183.
4. Launey, Michel
(1994). Une grammaire omniprédicative: essai sur la morphosyntaxe du nahuatl
classique. Paris: CNRS Editions.
5. Broschart,
Jürgen (1997). "Why Tongan does it differently: Categorial Distinctions in
a Language without Nouns and Verbs". Linguistic Typology 1 (2):
123–165. doi:10.1515/lity.1997.1.2.123.
6. Klammer,
Thomas; Schulz, Muriel R.; Della Volpe, Angela (2009). Analyzing English
Grammar (6th ed.). Longman.
External links
 |
|
- The parts of speech
- Parts of Speech Activities at Quia
- Guide to Grammar and Writing
- English Grammar Blog
- Martin Haspelmath. 2001. "Word Classes and Parts of Speech." In: Baltes, Paul B. & Smelser, Neil J. (eds.) International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Amsterdam: Pergamon, 16538-16545. (PDF)
In grammar, a part of
speech (also a word class, a lexical class, or a lexical
category) is a linguistic category of words (or more precisely lexical
items), which is generally defined by the syntactic or morphological behaviour of the lexical item in question. Common
linguistic categories include noun and verb, among others. There are open word classes, which constantly acquire new members, and closed word classes, which acquire new members infrequently, if at all.
Almost all languages have the lexical categories noun and verb, but beyond these there are
significant variations in different languages.[1] For example, Japanese has as many as three classes of adjectives where English has one; Chinese, Korean and Japanese
have nominal classifiers whereas European languages do not; many languages do
not have a distinction between adjectives and adverbs, adjectives
and verbs (see stative verbs) or adjectives
and nouns[citation needed], etc. This
variation in the number of categories and their identifying properties entails
that analysis be done for each individual language. Nevertheless the labels for
each category are assigned on the basis of universal criteria.[1]
Controversies
Since the Greek grammar of 2nd century BC, parts of speech have been
defined by morphological, syntactic and semantic criteria.
However, there is currently no generally agreed-upon classification scheme that
can apply to all languages, or even a set of criteria upon which such a scheme
should be based.
English
A diagram of
English categories in accordance with modern linguistic studies
English words have
been traditionally classified into eight lexical categories, or parts of speech
(and are still done so in most dictionaries):
Noun
any abstract or concrete entity; a
person (police officer, Michael), place (coastline, London), thing (necktie, television),
idea (happiness), or quality (bravery)
Pronoun
any substitute for a noun or noun
phrase (them)
Adjective
any qualifier of a noun or pronoun (big)
Verb
any action (walk), occurrence (happen),
or state of being (be)
Adverb
any qualifier of an adjective, verb,
clause, sentence, or other adverb (very)
Preposition
any establisher of relation and
syntactic context (in)
Conjunction
any syntactic connector (and)
Interjection
any emotional greeting (or
"exclamation") (ow)
Linguists recognize that
the above list of eight word classes is drastically simplified and artificial.[2] For example,
"adverb" is to some extent a catch-all class that includes words with
many different functions. Some have even argued that the most basic of category
distinctions, that of nouns and verbs, is unfounded,[3] or not
applicable to certain languages.[4][5] Although these
eight are the traditional eight English parts of speech, modern linguists have
been able to classify English words into even more specific categories and
subcategories based on function.
The four main parts of speech in English, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives
and adverbs, are labelled "form classes" as well. This is because
prototypical members of each class share the ability to change their form by
accepting derivational or inflectional morphemes. The term "form" is
used because it refers literally to the similarities in shape of the word in
its pronunciation and spelling for each part of speech.[6]
Neither written nor spoken English generally marks words as belonging to one part of speech or another, as they tend to be
understood in the context of the sentence. Words like neigh, break, outlaw, laser,
microwave, and telephone might all be either verb forms or nouns. Although -ly
is a frequent adverb marker, not all adverbs end in -ly (-wise is another
common adverb marker) and not all words ending in -ly are adverbs. For
instance, tomorrow, fast, very can all be adverbs, while early, friendly, ugly
are all adjectives (though early can also function as an adverb). Verbs can
also be used as adjectives (e.g. "The astonished child watched the
spectacle unfold" instead of the verb usage "The unfolding spectacle astonished
the child"). In such cases, the verb is in its participle form.
In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions
can be used as verbs or nouns, as in, "We must look to the hows and not
just the whys."
Functional classification
The study of linguistics has expanded
the understanding of lexical categories in various languages and allowed for
better classifying words by function. Common lexical categories in English by
function may include:
- Closed word classes:
- auxiliary verbs
- clitics
- coverbs
- conjunctions
- determiners (articles, quantifiers, demonstrative adjectives, and possessive adjectives)
- particles
- measure words
- adpositions (prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions)
- preverbs
- pronouns
- contractions
- cardinal numbers
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